Language Slang Free Essays

Language is one of those circles of human movement that are the first to carry response to social and different sorts of changes in human life and exercises. Language may even follow or go with these progressions as well as motivation them. Each social or political change, unrest, advancement, presentation of new words and terms is reflected in paper distributions. We will compose a custom exposition test on Language Slang or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now An incredible number of individuals, over 70%, read papers everyday[1 5]. Andto keep such an enormous number of individuals perusing, the paper must be anything but difficult to peruse and comprehend. Utilizing a sort of discourse that individuals se regular is a simple method to achieve that. Utilizing casual discourse ought to likewise be utilized relying upon the crowd that is perusing a paper article[1 1,125-126]. Informal discourse ought to likewise be utilized if an article is composed for kids or young people. An adolescent would better identify with â€Å"Hey, what’s up? † than â€Å"Greetings. How are you this fine September evening? † Because they can identify with it, they are bound to comprehend the content and continue perusing. Not just adolescents and kids utilize this kind of language. Numerous grown-ups still use words like â€Å"radar† and â€Å"e-mail†; both of them are formal English[1 5]. That is the reason the subject of this research project is of an incredible significance. The significance of the research paper iscaused bypermanent improvement of language. While doing our exploration we will consider crafted by such researchers as Arnold I. V. , Galperin I. R. , Rayevska N. M, Kukharenko V. A. , Antrushyna H. B. what's more, different researchers, who have just made an extraordinary commitment to exploring everyday jargon and paper style. The errand of this research project is to introduce the utilization of conversational words in British and American papers. The point of the research paper is to break down the informal jargon in English papers. To accomplish the previously mentioned reason the accompanying destinations are built up: to examine the hypothetical material which is identified with the subject of the research paper; - to break down the papers of Great Britain and USA with the point of choosing uncommon informal words; - to characterize the predominant piece of everyday jargon winning among the papers. The object of the research paper is lexical units speaking to conversational English jargon. The subject of the research project is the investigation of the eculiarities of informal jargon of English papers. The material for the examination is taken from various paper articles in the accompanying British and American papers: The Gurdian, The New York Times, The Daily mirror, The Sun. In this research project thefollowing techniques for examine have been utilized: - the strategy for examination and amalgamation; - elucidating strategy. The strategy for examination is utilized to break a mind boggling subject into littler parts to increase a superior comprehension of it. The strategy for union is utilized to consolidate separate components of research so as to frame a sound entirety. Clear strategy is utilized o present the image of a marvels under investigation. Step by step instructions to refer to Language Slang, Essays

Reflection essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 9

Reflection - Essay Example Clearly, development has seen the trade in social practices and exercises. Best practices have consistently been traded since the time the acknowledgment of the social decent variety. Individuals from various societies will in general become familiar with the acts of different societies and use the exercises for individual and cultural advantages. Be that as it may, the social decent variety doesn't imply that societies are unique. Surely, the variety ascribes to the nearness of likenesses and contrasts in the human culture. This paper will utilize the human studies focal point in showing the social varieties utilizing two-course books. It will expound the social varieties between the American hip jump gathering and a Japanese hip bounce gathering The creator expounds on the assorted variety between the Japanese society and American culture with respect to their discernment to hip bounce music. All the while, it clarifies how a culture and music that starts most of the way around the globe is appropriated and changed inside the Tokyo clubs and the chronicle studios. All the while, the Japanese social decent variety and the remainder of the world are illustrated. The book portrays hip bounce as an acknowledged classification of music in the American culture while it is as yet discovering its ground in Japan. Clearly, the hip jump scene in Japan is lively. In this manner, the a significant number of the Japanese are pondering the music kind to come important in the music business and clubs in Tokyo. As a mirrored social practice, the Japanese can't reshape hip jump into a Japanese item. Or maybe, they attempt to copy the entire bundle of the American rappers. This incorporates the utilization of unfavorable terms, cadence (Condr y 137). This shows the Japanese language doesn't relate to the hip bounce nature of music. The hip jump class requires the rappers to stream with the beats and bode well out of a specific mood. In this way, the two societies change in language, and that impacts their music industry. From the chronicle appears,

What do the TOEFL Independent Writing Questions Look Like

What do the TOEFL Independent Writing Questions Look Like Most students have a pretty good understanding of what the two TOEFL writing questions require them to do. Everyone knows that the TOEFL independent writing question asks them to write an essay that describes their personal opinion about a given topic. Moreover, they all know that the integrated writing question asks them to compare an article about an academic topic to a lecture about the same topic. If they are smart, they even know that the lecture always opposes the reading.But do you know that ETS (the makers of the test) use some really common patterns when designing the questions every week? That these questions have really predictable forms and structures? Today I want to talk about some of the forms that ETS uses when designing the independent essay question.If you can learn these structures before taking the test your job might be a bit easier on test day. At the very least you will avoid being surprised by what you get. Oh, and dont worry. Ill talk about the integrated ess ay in a few days time. It is also super predictable.Obsolete Question StylesBefore I actually describe the question styles you will get on the test, I want to talk about a few styles that arent actually used anymore. A problem a lot of students face is that even the Official Guide to the TOEFL mentions several styles that ETS has eliminated in recent years.First of all, you likely wont get a compare and contrast question in the independent writing section. Heres one such question right from the Official Guide:Compare and contrast your life with that of your parents. Which do you think will be more satisfying for future generations.Yes, that is in the Official Guide (and some poorly written textbooks). However, you arent going to be asked to compare and contrast anything on the real test.Next up, you wont get a characteristics of question on the real test. Heres one from the Official Guide:Neighbors are the people who live near us. In your opinion, what are the characteristics of a g ood neighbor.Nope! Youll never be asked to mention the characteristics, traits of features of anything!Third, you wont get a causes of question. Heres one of those again, from the official guide:In general, people are living longer these days. Describe the causes of this phenomenon.That sounds like a really interesting question, but it wont show up on the test. You will never be asked to talk about the causes of anything.Okay, those are the most popular obsolete styles. So what will you get on the actual test?Current Question Style #1: Agree/DisagreeThe most common question type in the independent writing section is the agree/disagree style question. In this type you are presented with a short statement and asked if you agree or disagree with it. Heres one:Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Children should be required to follow strict rules set by their parents. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.Heres another:Do you agree or disagree with t he following statement? The widespread use of the Internet today has a positive effect on society. Use details and examples to support your opinion.Heck, heres one more:Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Sometimes it is better to not tell the truth. Use details and examples to support your opinion, dude.Simple, right? You are given a statement and asked if you agree or disagree with it. Just remember to actually pick a side. Dont support both sides!Current Question Style #2: PreferenceThe second most common question type is the preference style question. This type requires you to choose from between two opinions regarding some topic. Heres one:Some people feel that high school students should be required to do volunteer work in their free time. Others think that they should spend their free time studying and preparing for classes. Which do you think is better? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.Heres another:Some students prefer to study for tests alone. Others prefer to study with some of their classmates. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.Do you see what I mean? You are presented with two opinions and you must choose which one you prefer or think is better.Current Question Style #3: Three ChoicesThe last question style is the three choices style. This one is pretty straightforward. You must choose from between three given choices. Heres one such question:In your opinion, which of the following strategies is the best way for a student to prepare for a successful career?-Studying specific academic subjects-Taking a part-time job-Getting to know other studentsUse specific reasons and examples to support your answer.Heres one more:When a person is deciding what subject to focus on at college or university, which do you think is the best source of advice?-their current classmates-their teachers and professors-their parentsUse specific reasons and examples to support your answer. Final ThoughtsAnd thats it. As far as I know, ETS only really uses those three question styles. If you get something different, though, please let me know. If you want to know how to actually write this essay you can check out my guide to the independent task.You got this.

The Theory Of Organizational Behavior - 1861 Words

In organizational behavior, there are many topics researched. Motivation happens to be the most researched (Robbins Judge, 2014, p. 96). According to Robbins and Judge (2014), motivation includes the processes accounting for a person’s intensity, persistence of effort, and direction toward completing a goal (p. 97). The three concepts capturing the essence of motivation include hope, action, and vision. Pinder’s (2008) findings explained the following: Hope is one of many energizing internal forces that can arouse an individual towards action. Vision provides direction for the person’s actions as well as the sense of conviction and tenacity to persist when the going gets tough. Finally, action itself is what brings about change in a person’s circumstances, such as those of Dr. Frank O’Dea when he realized that he would not survive long unless he radically changed his and, along the way, the lives of countless beneficiaries in Canada and abroad (p. 3). It is easy to discuss the different theories pertaining to motivation such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, theory X and theory Y, the two-factor theory, and McClelland’s theory of needs (Robbins Judge, 2014). However, there is more to motivation such as the job characteristics model, work motivation, and rewards used to inspire employees. Job design outlines the manner in which elements of a job are categorized and arranged and how they decrease or increase effort. It also suggests what the elements are. (Robbins Show MoreRelatedOrganizational Theory and Behavior6990 Words   |  28 PagesOrganizational Theory and Behavior  © 1993, David S. Walonick, Ph.D. Classical Organization Theory Classical organization theory evolved during the first half of this century. It represents the merger of scientific management, bureaucratic theory, and administrative theory. Frederick Taylor (1917) developed scientific management theory (often called Taylorism) at the beginning of this century. His theory had four basic principles: 1) find the one best way to perform each task, 2) carefullyRead MoreTheories of Organizational Behavior10512 Words   |  43 PagesRevisiting the Classical theories Introduction Organization indexes considerably more than the structures that lifts us out of ‘bare life’. Organization is also intimately, and utterly, connected to thought. While many, and by no means just those in the West, think of themselves as ‘free’ from enslavement by others, and even free from the organization of the state, who can argue that they are also free from the pervasive effects of language, culture and science? These are matters into whichRead MoreOrganizational Behavior Theory : Trait Theory1373 Words   |  6 Pages Organizational Behavior Theory: Trait Theory Michael Sinnett MGT500 – Organizational Behavior Colorado State University – Global Campus Dr. Larry Key September 24, 2017â€Æ' Organizational Behavior Theory: Trait Theory There are so many aspects that make up human behavior. For example, a person s environment and their genetics are a couple of aspects that make up an individual s behavior. Therefore, it would make sense that when you have a group of individuals together there would be just asRead MoreApplying Organizational Behavior Theory? Essay1280 Words   |  6 PagesApplying Organizational Behavior Theory Ahmed Salman Argosy University September, 23, 2015 Applying Organizational Behavior Theory Introduction Organizational behavior entails the study of individual and also group performance and their interactions and ability to work in groups. It aims at identifying major problems that affects performance within the teams to work together, in a bid to develop a more efficient business operation (Hiriyappa, 2009). It relies heavily on organizational culturesRead MoreOrganizational Theory and Behavior Essay626 Words   |  3 PagesOrganizational Theory and Behavior Homework #3 October 9, 2007 What advancement barriers did Lisa encounter? Although Lisa Weber was a highly qualified, ambitious analyst for the firm, she never had a chance for advancement because of that glass ceiling. The idea of becoming a partner was always visible, but never attainable because of the various obstacles she had to face. The same obstacles most women face when trying to climb the corporate ladder. Several barriers stood in Lisa’s pathRead MoreOrganizational Behavior Theory Essay3878 Words   |  16 PagesMGT 332 Organizational Behavior Theory Worksheet – Chapter 5 Name_____________________________________________ Banner# ____________________________ Date: ______________   Ã¢â‚¬ ¨ Directions: Circle the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1.  _____ represent(s) complex, patterned, organismic reactions to how we think we are doing in our lifelong efforts to survive and flourish and to achieve what we wish for ourselves.   A.  Self-efficacy B.  Skills C.  IntelligenceRead MoreQuestions On Organizational Theory And Behavior1459 Words   |  6 Pages COURSE: ORGANISATIONAL THEORY AND BEHAVIOR COURSE CODE: MGT 4020 INSTRUCTOR: DR. SIKALEI DAMARY GROUP ONE INTERNET EXERCISE: ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT: DESIGN AND CULTURE MEMBERS ID NO GITATA IAN MWANGI 639068 MBEERA KEITH 641323 NDERITU SUSAN NJERI Read MoreOrganizational Behavior- Motivation Theories1023 Words   |  5 Pagesformal groups, the behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. Informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. These groups are natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact. (Pages 123-124) 135. Differentiate the terms role identity, role perception, and role expectation. There are certain attitudes and actual behaviors consistent with aRead MoreThe Theory, Organizational Behaviors, And The Interconnectedness Of Employees1221 Words   |  5 Pagesculture and behaviors from an occurred situation. This includes the organization realizing a repeated pattern of behaviors that is not growing or helping the organization in the right direction. When organizations admit to certain truths or facts and acknowledge flawed behaviors, then change can start. Organizations attempt to change by restructuring and reorganizing the company. Organizations learn only through individuals who learn. Individual learning does not guarantee organizational learning butRead MoreManagement, Organizational Behavior, And The Systems Theory963 Words   |  4 Pagesbut contemporary approaches to management aim to do just that. The sociotechnical theory, quantitative management, organizational behavior, a nd the systems theory all work in different ways to maintain a sort of balance within the businesses internal, competitive and macroenviroments. Keeping all areas of the open system balanced is essential for any manager to have a successful business. The sociotechnical theory was developed in the early 1950’s and was designed to refine the social environment

Counter Reformation and Art History - 641 Words

The Reformation was a religious movement that divided the church between the Catholics and Protestants. The Counter-Reformation was a reaction movement that followed this originally crusade, and was lead by the Catholics as a response to the wide spread of Protestantism. The purpose of the Counter-Reformation was to spawn internal reforms. This movement was focused on the renewal of the church in the form of the use of images, focus on the church as the house of God, and the veneration of the Virgin Mary and Saints. The Counter-Reformation was responsible for the start of major change in the Catholic Church and with regard to the role of art; the importance of art was heightened and the movement sought out to restore Catholicism and make is more attractive, thus emerged the Baroque style. As means to start such reform, Pope Paul III, initiated The Council of Trent. The gathering amongst high-ranking churchmen took place from 1545-1563 and was held for two primary purposes. The council was mustered to determine a plan to combat Protestantism and how Catholics would compromise with them and to reform the Catholic Church by clarification of the doctrine and define the central articles of faith. Through The Council of Trent, the strength of the Catholic doctrine increased, and there became a higher stress placed on the importance of the visual arts. The council was successful in developing a doctrine that outlined the difference between Protestantism and Catholicism and createdShow MoreRelatedThe Transformational Century And Historical Sources And Tools Essay1409 Words   |  6 Pagesthe generations, and/or physical items that have survived the ages (Sources and Tools of History, 2016). While many societies did not have written records until the last two century’s , there are many different sources of written history once societies became literate, such as personal diaries/letters and official government records (Sources and Tools of History, 2016). Due to the shortage of written history for events earlier than two centuries ago, historians are forced to rely on oral accountsRead MoreThe Baroque Era848 Words   |  4 PagesA’Miya Williams World History Since 1500 Professor Pinder 1 October 2015 Summative Essay The Baroque Era occurred from 1590 to 1725 AD in various parts of Europe. Its style was very different from its predecessor’s, the Renaissance, focus on antiquity. It was not until the Reformation that the Baroque style took its place in history as a momentous period. During the Reformation, people broke from the almighty Roman Catholic Church and created their own form of Christian faith, Protestantism. ThisRead MoreThe Holy Family With Saints Anne And John The Baptist, 1592 ( Oil On Canvas )1296 Words   |  6 PagesThe painting The Holy Family with Saints Anne and John the Baptist, 1592 (oil on canvas) was created by Italian painter Sofonisba Anguissola (c.1532-1625). It is currently held at the Collection of the Lowe Art Museum, University of Miami, as a gift from Mrs. Forbes Hawkes and Bridgeman Images. This painting is among the unique pious narrative paintings by Anguissola. â€Å"The Holy Family† is the last dated painting by the artist. It was executed when sh e had just returned to Italy after spending 14Read MoreFinal Exam Studyguide Essay668 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿History of Art 3521: Introduction to Italian Renaissance Art Final Study Guide I decided to prepare this sheet as a short description of some of the important themes that we’ve taken up in lecture in the second half of the quarter. In preparation for our final, I would recommend reviewing your notes and textbook, putting together answers to each of these. Indeed, if you have good answers in your head (making use of examples shown in class) for each question, you should do well. 1. How wasRead MoreThe Art Of Reformation By Martin Luther985 Words   |  4 PagesAnalytical Paper: The Art of Reformation The year 1517 is claimed by Christianity to be the original spark of a reformation that changed the face of the most prevalent religion in the western world, beginning in Germany and soon enveloping the known world in an upheaval of beliefs and values. However, due to the fact that Protestant faiths became their own religious, social and political powers, the correct term for this movement would not be ‘reformation’ but in fact ‘revolution’. The so-calledRead MoreEssay on Formal Analysis and Historical Context of Artwork1552 Words   |  7 Pagesmasterpiece, Venus and Adonis, is not only a significant artwork of the baroque-period in Europe during the seventeenth century, but it also tells the mythological story that begins with love, and ends in tragedy. Displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, this painting is admired for representing the unique baroque-style of this era, as well as Rubens’ particular use of the medium and how it reaches those who are viewing it. His attention to detail and crafty use of symbolism within the painting assistRead MoreThe Catholic Reformation And The Jewish Torah1229 Words   |  5 PagesReligion has been altered and developed throughout history. Christianity developed based on the Jewish Torah, also known as the Old Testament in the bible. Likewise, Christianity itself has evolved over the centuries. In order to survive, it has had to change and adapt. Not only have many rel igions and branches of Christianity become extinct over the centuries, but Christianity has also had to merge with the cultures of other religions. For example, Christmas was not originally a Christian holidayRead MoreThe Effect Censorship has on Art Essay examples943 Words   |  4 PagesThough out history artist have rejected any forms of censorship. Governments have had to enforce censorship laws for the sake of public safety. As well, as to maintain control of society and to uphold the moral and ethical values that the populous demands. Whether you are for or against censorship in art, it serves a useful purpose in moderation, but it can be taken to extremes. Whether it’s a fascist government or a extremist religious organization it is easy for a controversial law to be twistedRead MoreEssay on Michelangelo and Renaissance Religion1148 Words   |  5 Pagesupheaval of the Reformation. His art portrays this change in religious philosophy by discerning the major tren ds and objectives of the Renaissance. His works show us...the changing world around him (Richmond 4). In addition, Michelangelo seriously impacted generations of artists to come. The Renaissance was a rebirth that led to new ways of thinking in the sciences, philosophy, and architecture, as well as painting and sculpture (Spence 6). This period of European history, beginning inRead MoreMusic as Propaganda in the German Reformation1059 Words   |  5 PagesMusic as Propaganda in the German Reformation The reformation was a religious and political movement that took place in the year 1517. This movement was spread by the Cristian humanist Martin Luther, when he posted his â€Å"Ninety Five Theses†. The reformation itself is one of those things everybody has heard about but no one quite understands, even nowadays, 500 years after this movement occurred. The main reason for this movement is unknown, however, some causes are being slowly known. First of all

American Well Case Writeup Free Essays

American Well, a pioneer in online healthcare is at the crucial stage where the business opportunities look propitious at the same time it could make the company lose its perspective. It has the first-mover advantage with strong core competency. But still, some of the questions concerning the future of the company do needs to be addressed. We will write a custom essay sample on American Well Case Writeup or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some of the main questions that American Well faces are 1. Introducing the product to new customer segments 2. Capturing the international market 3. Pushing the products beyond health care industry. American well is currently serving the connectivity between patients and physicians. The new product â€Å"Team Edition† will serve the connectivity between primary care physicians (PCPs) and the specialist. They are also considering the prospect of online health care to Hospitals, Retail clinics and Pharmacies. The adverse effect is it could be too soon for American Well to launch a new undertaking, given their core services has not yet been adopted widely. Furthermore, this requires new hiring and additional funding. Stepping back has its own drawback of failing to capture the opportunity when there was demand. Meeting real-time excess demand with real-time excess capacity is a whole new world to be explored not only in health care but in many other industries. Also, the need for online health care has a great demand oversees too and American Well can explore its business in these new countries and can become a world leader in delivering virtual healthcare services in a many-to-many platform. Even though it is true that American Well has all the ideas and advantages – the main disadvantage is the lack of infrastructure and the awareness of an internet-based health service. There is still a lot of opportunities and work needed to be done with its present venture and stepping big foot too soon cannot be as beneficial for the company as it sounds. The â€Å"Team Edition† is an innovative product and the American Well should concentrate on its existing customer base i. e. the payers. They should probably do extensive market research on all these new opportunities. A research team could be formed including members from American Well and personnel from top insurance companies to explore the scope of extending its services to hospitals and pharmacies. They should wait for the â€Å"spending freezes† to be over and need to analyze on how the new health reforms will affect the existing organization. Another conceivable strategy could be a hybrid of Direct-To-Customer model and Business-To-Business model. American Well can establish a DTC model where they would directly sign up patients and doctors to a nationwide system along with their existing B2B model. This will cover more customer base. The short term goal How to cite American Well Case Writeup, Papers

This Theory Of The Universe Is Based On The Ideas Of A Caveman, Named

This theory of the universe is based on the ideas of a caveman, named that lived many thousands of years before the birth of Christ. His observations were made only through the use of his body, for there were no tools to aid him in his findings. His findings were based on his observations and the accepted views of the world during his lifetime. This is what he had to say: The earth was the center of the universe. This is an absolute, indisputable fact because it is obvious that the moon, sun, and other heavanly objects travel in paths around the earth. This is true, to the fact that certain objects appear in different parts of the sky at different times during either day or night. The shape of the universe is a large sphere. The outside boundary of the sphere is known as The Great Realm, this is where the stars are located. Between the realm and earth is a large void of space in which the moons, sun, moon spheres, and the larger stars are located. In the universe the earth is the only stationary object, except fot the great Fire Star. All other objects move around the earth. The earth is a sphere that is suspended in space, and the outer sphere rotates around it. There are holes in The Great Realm which give us a glimpse of heaven. The color depends on the area of heaven being viewed and what is contained there, and which god is watching. These holes, known as stars, let the gods see through and when someone pleases them their sole will go there, for it is a beautiful land of magnificant colors. The fact that The Great Realm is rotating around the earth explains why the stars move across the sky but still keep the same reference to one another. Sometimes, a star wil appear that hadn't been there before. This is due to the fact that someone in heaven wants to view the earth but can't get to look through the other stars. The other heavanly objects are located in the void of space between earth and the The Great Realm. The sun, is the huge, flaming sphere that moves around the earth in an irregular pattern that goes from the east to the west. The sun revolves at more of an angle than the others. The sun's pathed must be fueled by explosions of energy from within it. The energy is higher in the day, proven by the fact that the sun is goes higher and higher into the sky and stops around the middle of the day. The energy starts to decrease after that because the sun goes lower in the sky until sunset at night. During the night the sun is on the other side of the earth, where we can't see it. There it gathers the energy it will use the next day to go across the sky. Since it continues to travel around the earth, is rises and sets in the same directions everyday. In the summer months the sun is closer to the earth which helps it gain energy from the earth's heat. This allows the sun to use up this energy to move itself farther from the earth during the cold winter months. Since the sun is farther away it moves out of sight in a shorter time period, which makes these days shorter than the summer. While in the summer, the sun is attracted to the warm earth and is close to the earth. This results in longer days during the summer. The larger stars which are known as planets, like the sun, travel in irregular paths around the earth. Unlike the other stars, they are located in the void of space. The planets are like earth but have different terrains to them. The make-up of their terrains is what causes there color. The one that is red is obviously covered in volcanoes and that the redness is all lava. They can usually be seen at sunrise and sunset, which is when they are brightest. They are similar to earth but aren't as important to the gods. That is why they move around the earth, and aren't stationary.

Social Constructionism Definition

Social Constructionism Definition Social constructionism is the theory that people develop knowledge of the world in a social context, and that much of what we perceive as reality depends on shared assumptions. From a social constructionist perspective, many things we take for granted and believe are objective reality are actually socially constructed, and thus, can change as society changes. Key Takeaways: Social Constructionism The theory of social constructionism states that meaning and knowledge are socially created.Social constructionists believe that things that are generally viewed as natural or normal in society, such as understandings of gender, race, class, and disability, are socially constructed, and consequently aren’t an accurate reflection of reality.Social constructs are often created within specific institutions and cultures and come to prominence in certain historical periods. Social constructs’ dependence of historical, political, and economic conditions can lead them to evolve and change. Origins The theory of social constructionism was introduced in the 1966 book The Social Construction of Reality, by sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckman. Berger and Luckman’s ideas were inspired by a number of thinkers, including Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and George Herbert Mead. In particular, Meads theory symbolic interactionism, which suggests that social interaction is responsible for the construction of identity, was highly influential. In the late 1960s, three separate intellectual movements came together to form the foundation of social constructionism. The first was an ideological movement that questioned social realities and put a spotlight on the political agenda behind such realities. The second was a literary/rhetorical drive to deconstruct language and the way it impacts our knowledge of reality. And the third was a critique of scientific practice, led by Thomas Kuhn, who argued that scientific findings are influenced by, and thus representative of, the specific communities where theyre produced- rather than objective reality. Social Constructionism Definition The theory of social constructionism asserts that all meaning is socially created. Social constructs might be so ingrained that they feel natural, but they are not. Instead, they are an invention of a given society and thus do not accurately reflect reality. Social constructionists typically agree on three key points: Knowledge Is Socially Constructed Social constructionists believe that knowledge arises out of human relationships. Thus, what we take to be true and objective is the result of social processes that take place in historical and cultural contexts. In the realm of the sciences, this means that although truth can be achieved within the confines of a given discipline, there is no over-arching truth that is more legitimate than any other. Language Is Central to Social Construction Language abides by specific rules, and these rules of language shape how we understand the world. As a result, language isn’t neutral. It emphasizes certain things while ignoring others. Thus, language constrains what we can express as well as our perceptions of what we experience and what we know. Knowledge Construction Is Politically-Driven The knowledge created in a community has social, cultural, and political consequences. People in a community accept and sustain the community’s understanding of particular truths, values, and realities. When new members of a community accept such knowledge, it extends even further. When a community’s accepted knowledge becomes policy, ideas about power and privilege in the community become codified. These socially constructed ideas then create social reality, and- if they aren’t examined- begin to seem fixed and unchangeable. This can lead to antagonistic relationships between communities that don’t share the same understanding of social reality. Social Constructionism vs. Other Theories Social constructionism is often placed in contrast with biological determinism. Biological determinism suggests that an individuals traits and behavior are determined exclusively by biological factors. Social constructionism, on the other hand, emphasizes the influence of environmental factors on human behavior and suggests that relationships among people create reality. In addition, social constructionism should not be confused with constructivism. Social constructivism is the idea that an individuals interactions with her environment create the cognitive structures that enable her to understand the world. This idea is often traced back to developmental psychologist Jean Piaget. While the two terms spring from different scholarly traditions, they are increasingly used interchangeably. Critiques Some scholars believe that, by asserting that knowledge is socially constructed and not the result of observations of reality, social constructionism is anti-realist. Social constructionism is also criticized on grounds of relativism. By arguing that no objective truth exists and that all social constructions of the same phenomena are equally legitimate, no construct can be more legitimate than another. This is especially problematic in the context of scientific research. If an unscientific account about a phenomenon is considered as legitimate as empirical research about that phenomenon, there is no clear path forward for research to make a meaningful impact on society. Sources Andrews, Tom. â€Å"What is Social Constructionism?† Grounded Theory Review: An International Journal, vol. 11, no. 1, 2012. http://groundedtheoryreview.com/2012/06/01/what-is-social-constructionism/Berger, Peter L. and Thomas Luckman. The Social Construction of Reality. Doubleday/Anchor, 1966.Chu, Hyejin Iris. â€Å"Social Constructionism.† International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Encyclopedia.com. 2008. https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/social-constructionismGalbin, Alexandra. â€Å"An Introduction to Social Constructionism.† Social Research Reports, vol. 26, 2014, pp. 82-92. https://www.researchreports.ro/an-introduction-to-social-constructionismGergen, Kenneth J. â€Å"The Self as Social Construction.† Psychological Studies, vol. 56, no. 1, 2011, pp. 108-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12646-011-0066-1Hare, Rachel T. and Jeanne Marecek. â€Å"Abnormal and Cli nical Psychology: The Politics of Madness.† Critical Psychology: An Introduction, edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky, Sage Publications, 1999, pp. 104-120. Kang, Miliann, Donovan Lessard, Laura Heston, and Sonny Nordmarken. Introduction to Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies. University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, 2017. https://press.rebus.community/introwgss/front-matter/287-2/â€Å"Social Constructionism.† Oxford Reference. oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181

ACT Prep

Is There Asian-American Discrimination in College Admissions and SAT / ACT Prep SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Recently, there has been substantial coverage about whether colleges discriminate against Asian-Americans in admissions and even test prep. What does that mean for these students? How should such students navigate SAT / ACT prep and college admissions? This article surveys the current state of admissions and gives some tips. Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article do not necessarily represent those of PrepScholar or any affiliate. While even broaching this topic can be seen as controversial, I also believe, as an educator, that I’m responsible for giving advice that helps the greatest number of students understand the landscape. This article specifically addresses Asian-Americans applying from the US and not applicants directly applying from Asia. Introduction The intersection of race and college admissions has always been a sensitive issue, but recently it has boiled over to the front pages of newspapers. Sociology professor Thomas Espenshade writes that â€Å"To receive equal consideration by elite colleges, Asian-Americans must outperform Whites by 140 points [on the 1600-scale SAT].† Data from the National Center for Education Statistics show that, while Asians of college age doubled in the last 25 years, their enrollment rates at Ivy-League schools have stayed the same. S.B. Woo, founder of the National Asian-American Educational Foundation,concludes that the â€Å"discrimination is obvious†. Others defend using race as a factor in admissions. Director of Education Equity Khin Aung argues that considering race allows benefits of diversity such as â€Å"creating the most effective learning environment.† Jeff Neal, a spokesperson at Harvard, states that Harvard â€Å"continues to support the use of holistic admissions process," which implicitly includes race. To catch up with the current state of conversation on the topic, all you have to do is Google â€Å"Asian college admissions†. Are Asian-Americans Discriminated Against in College Admissions? The value of affirmative action is controversial, but the existence of affirmative action is undisputed. The vast majority of experts in college admissions and SAT / ACT prep agree that affirmative action exists - college admissions is not totally blind to race. Given an ACT / SAT score range, it is an empirical fact that Asian-Americans have a lower acceptance rate than the average white American in many data setssuch as the Espenshade and Radford 1997 elite college admissions data. Likewise, a survey of the admitted class of 2017 at Harvard revealed that SAT scores for Asians (including Indians) were higher than those of whites. However, as anyone who has studied statistics can tell you (and I do have a Master’s degree in the field), those facts above are correlations and not causations. They suggest, but do not prove, that an Asian-American with otherwise the same application to the same school as a white American will have a lower chance of admission. I call this the Hypothesis that being Asian Lowers Admissions Chances (HALAC). HALAC, of course, implies that being Asian means that getting into a given college will be harderfor you than for a white American. What This Article Does and Does Not Do This article will give you advice as to what an Asian-American may want to consider doing to maximize chances of college admissions. On both the front of the university and the government, policy moves too slowly for it to help most Asian-Americans with this issue. Therefore, this article doesn't take any stance on the correct institutional policies or political views as a response to HALAC. Additionally, given that causality is difficult to prove, this article doesn't take a stance on whether causally the HALAC effect exists. Instead, this article focuses on things you, as an Asian-American, can do right now to maximize your chances of being accepted into top colleges. If you read through the evidence and believe that the HALAC effect exists, then the suggestions below can be useful to you. If you Google the evidence and don't think it supports HALAC, that's fine too - the advice below will be less applicable to you in that case. What Doesn't Work Before I give you the tips for what works for Asian applicants under the HALAC effect, I will first go over what absolutely doesn’t work. First, lying doesn’t work nearly as well as you might think.What if you just don’t check the Asian box? What if you check â€Å"don’t want to disclose†? The problem is that colleges can often tell your race through other means. You do have to give colleges your legal name - if your last name is Nguyen, Lee, Kim, or Patel, for example, the admissions staff will almost certainly figure it out. What about just changing your name or making up your name? This will really get you into hot water as colleges are pretty good about calling your past teachers and running background checks on you. A good rule of thumb is this: if a casual friend who knows you would unambiguously say you’re of Asian ethnicity, it’s hard to get around it. Just put down that you’re Asian and be done with it. By telling the truth on your name and ethnicity box, you at least signal honesty. On the other hand, if you have a legitimate reason for not identifying as Asian, then you can, in fact, consider this path. Suppose you’re genetically 25% Asian and 75% Hispanic, and your parents were both born in the United States. Some college applications ask you to identify with one or as many ethnicities as you want. Under the HALAC effect you probably do want to omit Asian, if allowed. Also, mass action will rarely work to your advantage for admissions. By mass action, I mean protesting the HALAC effect, suing colleges, complaining to the government, and so forth. Colleges may be reluctant to admit a student likely to cause the administration a headache.Remember, university administration is a highly political entity. The government political process also works way too slowly. It will cost millions to fight it out in court and years to reach a judgment. If your goal is to raise your chances of admissions under the HALAC effect, I would think twice about filing an official grievance. Of course, there are other fine reasons that you may want to take mass action in the future, perhaps due to your political or ethical beliefs. However, I’m just telling you that, almost always, taking official or mass action won’t increase your personal short-term chances of getting into a certain school. Who Does This Article Apply To? This article applies much more to Americans of Asian heritage, i.e. students who have studied in the US at least a few years before they apply to college. It applies much less to students who are applying directly from another country. These latter students are better classified as international students. For them, there is a whole set of other factors that are more important - for example appetite of a college for internationalstudents, authenticity of documents, etc. Throughout this article, the term â€Å"Asian† includes Indian and other ethnically related neighbors - since the data across these groups are all similar. How You Can Combat the HALAC Effect Now that you understand what the HALAC effect is, how can you use that information to increase your chances of getting into top schools? Below are three strategies for combating the HALAC effect; read through them to learn how to maximize your chances of admission. Step 1: Account for the HALAC Effect Before you can combat the HALAC effect, first you have to find where it exists. The HALAC effect is not something that can be magically erased by easy action on your part. Therefore, in response to the HALAC effect, the first and most important thing that a student of Asian heritage should do is to account for it correctly. By this, I mean realizing that your chances of getting in are lower and planning accordingly which colleges you’ll apply to and how you’ll apply to them. Accounting for the HALAC effectmeans that you should adjust where your reach, target, and safety schools are. Instead of putting them as high as you might otherwise, target them a little lower. If you target too high, you run the risk of overshooting - not getting into the target schools of your choice and instead getting into a safety school that you didn’t spend much time researching. You should also account for the HALAC effect more at classically â€Å"elite† colleges. Colleges that are US News ranked 1-10 probably suffer most from HALAC, with the effect decreasing through colleges 10-50 in rank. The effect becomes much lower in colleges ranked above 50. In fact, most HALAC studies focus on the top colleges for exactly this reason: the effects are more concentrated and more statistically significant there. There are many potential reasons for the concentration of the HALAC effect on highly ranked colleges. Proportionally, more Asians apply to these colleges, leading to the HALAC effect when colleges diversify away from Asians. Also, these schools tend to care the most about diversity factors because they are already oversubscribed by great academic performers. These diversity factors tend to be big drivers of the HALAC effect. Conversely, a more moderately rated college will show a lesser HALAC effect because, to them, someone academically strong is itself a great asset. How do you account for the HALAC effect? One method is to apply to more colleges when doing applications. Apply to three times the number of reach schools you would otherwise and twice the number of target schools. Applying to more schools ensures that you compensate for lower chances due to HALAC. The more accurate method to account for HALAC is to just do an SAT / ACT score adjustment. That is, lower your SAT by 100 points (on the 1600 scale) or yourACT score by 2 points, and then go through the colleges you’re applying to â€Å"as if† you got your adjusted score. For example, if you really got a 1500 on your SAT, think of your chances of getting into college as if you got a 1400 instead. When you look up your chances using our â€Å"what are my chances table†, use 1400 instead of 1500. By doing this adjustment, you’ll correctly identifythe right reach, target, and safety schools. Why 100 points on the SAT and 2 points on the ACT? These are rough numbers that are closest to a large set of consensus estimates for the HALAC effect. They’re a little lower than the Espenshade study but higher than some other casual surveys. I should disclaim that these numbers are rules of thumb and not hard scientific numbers. Also, for rank 1-10 schools, you should adjust for the full 100 points, but if you’re applying to schools ranked 10-50, a rule of thumb is you can account for just a 50-point adjustment. The adjustment beyond rank 50 will be smaller still. Step 2: Combat the HALAC Effect Through Test Scores Given that Asians need a 100-point increase on the 1600-SAT to reach the same admissions chances, another way to combat the effect is just by having a higher SAT / ACT score.This does require more time and dedication, but it’s definitely possible. It’s not easy to improve by 100 points on the SAT or 2 points on the ACT. However, such improvements are definitely doable. In fact, we at PrepScholar have a 160-point guarantee for the SATand a 4-point guarantee for the ACT.You’ll need to work harder, but you can overcome the HALAC effect this way. Some stereotype Asians as studying more than usual forthe SAT / ACT. However, with their need to score higher just to have the same chances under HALAC, this behavioris much less of a surprise. Step 3: Combat the HALAC Effect Through Diversity in Other Areas To combat HALAC closer to its roots, it’s useful to examine how the HALAC effect arises. Supporters of affirmative action, including the universities themselves, always emphasize diversity as the primary goal. While one can argue about whether that is the sole goal of affirmative action, it is clear that diversity provides a strong channel to drive the HALAC effect. Looking at the diversity driver of the HALAC effect will be another key for Asians to overcome it. Under this diversity driver model, the reason HALAC occurs is because, in the eyes of admissions officers, too many Asian applicants all look the same on paper. They are too similar along too many dimensions. These applicants all do well in school, have high ACT / SAT scores, play violin or piano, and play a racketsport like tennis. Oh and, of course, they are all Asian. The problem from the point of diversity isn’t that an applicant is merely Asian, but rather that an entire host of applicants all look the same along other dimensions. A colorful but useful analogy for the diversity needs of colleges is putting horses into barn stalls. The horses represent applicants, and the barn stalls are the â€Å"spaces† and archetypes that the school has for these applicants. One stall might be labeledâ€Å"Asian, high grades, piano player† - and this stall is overfilled. But if you were white, the â€Å"white, high grades, piano player† stall is only half full! You can’t change your ethnicity, but you can definitely change your other labels, your other dimensions. It turns out that â€Å"Asian, high grades, lacrosse star† is wide open too! Why not fill that stall instead? Put in more theoretical terms, to the extent the HALAC effect is about diversity, you can generate diversity along other dimensions. Instead of being an Asian who’s a top ranked violin player (stereotypical Asian), why not try being a top guitar player? You can go further than that. While a guitar is not stereotypically Asian, it is still a very common instrument. Perhaps you are better off trying to be a top French horn player? Instead of playing badminton, why not try soccer or squash? Generally, think about what the stereotypical Asian applicant looks like. If you can be equally good along a dimension but break the stereotype, it is definitely to your advantage. Being in your state’s top 20 tennis players is probably less advantageous than being one of your state’s top 20 lacrosse players. Being a top 50 debater in your state is probably better than being a top 50 math competitor. It is important that you break the Asian stereotype in ways that are low cost to you. If you can jump from being a top 20 tennis player to a top 20 lacrosse player for free, you definitely should. But life is rarely that simple - and that’s just one of many reasons I don’t like the plain advice â€Å"appear less Asian†. What if you’re a nationally ranked tennis player and don’t know a thing about lacrosse? What if math is your passion and debating is more boring to you than breaking rocks? You have to account for the fact that breaking stereotypes can be costly. I would say that, for an Asian applicant, a rank 50 state debater is stronger than a rank 50 math competitor. But a rank 50 debater is definitely weaker than a rank 5 state math competitor and is probably equal to a rank 20 state math competitor. When it comes to top colleges, they care about what you’re best at and your natural spike. I would be extremely cautious about sacrificing your best dimension in the name of diversity. In fact, I would almost never sacrifice your spike for diversity. The take-away message is this: if you can diversify in extracurriculars at low cost, then do it. However, if you have a special talent, and it happens to be in an area that â€Å"looks Asian†, then don’t give it up. The right calibration is probably a loss of 2x in rank. If you can switch from an Asian-heavy activity to an Asian-light one and lose just 1.5x in rank (e.g. rank 20 to rank 30), then make the switch. But if you have to give up 4x in rank (rank 20 to rank 80), don’t make the switch. Summary Hopefully, the above article gives you a good sense of the unique landscape that Asian-American applicants face in United States college admissions. We started out with some background on the debate - although if you want the full story it’s best to Google the controversy yourself. Then we talked about what the data shows and whether you believe in the Hypothesis of Asians having Lower Admissions Chances. In such a case, we examined how big the HALAC effect can be (about 100 points on the SAT scale). The good news is that there are steps Asian-Americans can take to increase their chances. First, look for diversity in dimensions beyond race; look for diversity in extracurriculars. Second, it’s important to ensure that you’re strong on the SAT / ACT front to make up those 100 points. Do both of these things and you'll give yourself a much better shot at getting into your dream schools. What's Next? Want to improve your SAT score so that you have a better chance of getting into topschools? Learn how studying can get you a perfect SAT score! Wondering which extracurriculars you should join to help yourself stand out? We have guides that include hundreds of extracurriculars ideas andexamples of amazing extracurriculars that are sure to impress colleges. Want more information on what it takes to get into top schools? Learn how to get accepted to Harvard and the Ivy League, written by a Harvard alum. Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Dr. Fred Zhang About the Author Fred is co-founder of PrepScholar. He scored a perfect score on the SAT and is passionate about sharing information with aspiring students. Fred graduated from Harvard University with a Bachelor's in Mathematics and a PhD in Economics. Get Free Guides to Boost Your SAT/ACT Get FREE EXCLUSIVE insider tips on how to ACE THE SAT/ACT. 100% Privacy. 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Basic spanish project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Basic spanish project - Essay Example Su duracià ³n es como las demà ¡s estaciones, 3 meses. Estos son junio, julio, y agosto. Me gusta ir a la playa y salir con mis amistades. En esos meses tambià ©n estoy de vacaciones de la escuela y me encanta. Topic: Write about your bedroom (or the room where you sleep). You may include the names of people you share it with (if anyone), descriptions of your furniture, decorations, sizes, colors, etc. (Assume you are a 16 year old boy and have a room to yourself) Mi cuarto de dormir es grande. Ahà ­ tengo mi espacio favorito. Duermo solo. El color del cuarto es azul royal y los muebles son de caoba. Tengo una cama, dos mesas de noche, dos là ¡mparas de noche, un mueble con gavetas, y un armario. Write a paragraph in Spanish that describes where you live. Use at least 5 sentences. Be sure to note what street you live on, and the locations of at least two of your friends in relation to you, your school, home, or other place you spend time at (like a library, shopping mall, park, etc.) Your paragraph needs to include the respective locations of next to, in front of, and near. (Again presume you are a 16 year old boy, two friends are Jake and Ahmed, he likes to go to the cinema and shopping Mall which are about 3km away) School is 5km away in an area called Saar. Vivo en la Ciudad de Nueva York, en la calle Chile. Mi amigo Jake y mi amigo Ahmed viven a dos cuadras de mi casa. Ellos viven al lado, son vecinos. Vamos mucho al parque que queda frente a mi casa. Despuà ©s del juego vamos a la bodega a tomar refrescos. La bodega esta cerca del parque. Nos gusta mucho esta actividad. Write a paragraph in Spanish of at least eight sentences that tell about your typical day. Use the vocabulary and verbs you have learned in Units 1-4 of this course. You may include activities you do with family and friends. (16 year old boy, talk about School until 2p.m, lunch, walk the dog, homework, go to Ahmed or Jake’s house to hang out and watch DVD’s, dinner at

Biochemical identification of unknown bacteria Lab Report

Biochemical identification of unknown bacteria - Lab Report Example 1) Nutrient agar slant: Given culture was streak on the nutrient agar slant and incubated at two different temperature 25Â °C and 37Â °C respectively. After 24h of incubation, slants were taken out from incubator and growth was observed. Growth on tube incubated at 37Â °C was found to be effuse and the growth was extensive while in case of tube incubated at 25Â °C growth was found to be lesser compared to previous tube and echinulated in nature. There was no pigmentation observed and growth was found to be whitish in color and translucent in nature. Results indicated that given unknown bacteria is either Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes or Staphylococcus aureus ,being human /animal inhabitant The optimum temperature for growth of these bacteria is 37Â °C (i.e. human body temperature) while in case of Pseudomonas aerogenosa being free living as well as human inhabitant, it can grow at 25Â °C as well as 37Â °C . Similarly it also produces bluish green pigment and grows as mucoid colony. 2) Nutrient agar: Given culture was streak on to the nutrient agar plate using quadrant streak technique and incubated at 37Â °C for 24 h. After incubation colonies were found to be convex, circular and having entire margin. Optically colonies were found to be translucent and without any pigmentation. This observation again ruled out the possibility of Pseudomonas aeroginosa. Similarly colony of Staphylococcus aureus is opaque, slightly elevated, appears yellowish white.

Laughter as Therapy in One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest by Ken Kesey Ess

Laughter as Therapy in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest by Ken Kesey Laughter is a therapeutic form. In the novel One flew over the cuckoo’s nest by Ken Kesey laughter represents freedom and an escape from nurse Ratched’s restrictions. Laughter also proves a vital role in helping the patients deal with their problems. Not only does it help them deal with problems but it also gave them the push toward progress on getting out of the institution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mcmurphy was the one who started making people laughing in the ward. When he first came into the ward he was cracking jokes and shaking everybody’s hand. (p.16) No one in the ward responded with any real response but confusion. No body knew what laughter was in the ward, it was taken from them. The only thing they had was board games and Mrs. Ratched’s music (15). The ward was a very depressing place.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Mcmurphy comes into the ward his laughing was making people uneasy. This showed how far away the patients were from reality. The chief says (22) â€Å"I see he is making every body over their uneasy, with all his kidding and joking.† Then right after he starts connecting to the patients and the Acutes actually show some sign of a smile (23) â€Å"The Acutes are grinning now not so uneasy any more glad that something out of the ordinary is happening.† Only after 8 pages there is progress already seen in the patients with laughter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Chief Bromden states â€Å"The air is pressed in by the walls to tight to let loose and laugh.† Before Mcmurphy arrives it is true. After his presence is recognized by the patients Mrs. Ratcheds grip over the institution starts loosing its hold. The first thing the patients do to start breaking her hold is start the gambling. They gamble for money even though it’s against ward policy. Little by little the patients show improvement with themselves it is portrayed by the ability not just to laugh but laugh at their own qualities. This occurs in the climax of the novel during the fishing trip (p215). When every ones lines tangle up and they start laughing at each other and themselves that is when they know that they aren’t really that crazy. They knew they were getting better. â€Å"They could sense the change that most of us were only suspecting; these weren’t the same bunch of weak-knees from a nut house.†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nurse ratched lost a lot of her power once the patients kne... ...y different reasons. Some people even laugh when something horrible occurs, it is a method of escape from what horrors or mishaps are going on around you. â€Å"Many psychotherapists find humor a valuable tool in helping their patients to solve their social and emotional problems.† (G. Samuel) Chief bromden was having many problems once he learned to laugh especially at him self he was mostly cured. He was considered a chronic but after Mcmuprhy showed him that he has the ability to laugh and coincide with a group he was some what cured. â€Å"jokes and commissions enable individuals to defend against anxieties, fear, anger, and other disturbing emotions.†(G. Samuel) This was true in the chief’s and Harding’s case. Both of them left the institution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Laughing is resorted to in times where we need to laugh. It’s an escape from reality, its comfort, its fear. Laughing subdues any emotion that is too high strung in our system. It lets it vapor out in a melancholy form that helps us cope with problems that no one else can really understand and help us with. In One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest it allowed emotional tension escape from the patients and made nurse Ratched lose her ward.

Skills of a Project Manager

13_26_ch02. fm Page 13 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Chapter 2 Basic Skills for Project Managers Be not afraid of greatness; some are born great; some achieve greatness—others have greatness thrust upon them. William Shakespeare Twelfth Night Introduction Before now, we had discussed project management in the broad sense, that is, from the perspective that any type of project—industrial assembly line, new construction, or technology implementation— operated by the same sets of rules and processes. For the remainder of this book, we focus on the last type of project and its leader—the IT project manager.Project managers are a very special breed of people. They are in much demand and will be increasingly so as the need for effective technologists continues to soar. Good technology project managers are trained, not born. They develop skills through experience and education. They become better project managers each time they successfully deliver a project. They learn new techniques and apply them on their projects. They learn lessons—sometimes the hard way—to be better managers in the future. 13 13_26_ch02. fm Page 14 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM What Does a Project Manager Do?Briefly, technology project managers fulfill the following broad requirements: G G G G G G G G Define and review the business case and requirements by regular reviews and controls to ensure that the client receives the system that he or she wants and needs. Initiate and plan the project by establishing its format, direction, and base lines that allow for any variance measurements and change control. Partner with the end users, work with project sponsors and other management to establish progress and direction of the project by achieving goals, reaching targets, solving problems, mitigating risks.Manage the technology, people, and change in order to achieve goals, reach targets, and deliver the project on time and within budget. Manage the pro ject staff by creating an environment conducive to the delivery of the new application in the most cost-effective manner. Be able to manage uncertainty, rapid change, ambiguity, surprises, and a less defined environment. Manage the client relationship by using an adequate direct yet complete and formal reporting format that compliments a respected and productive relationship. Drive the project by leading by example, and motivating allconcerned until the project accomplishes its goal.Now let us examine the skills and qualities needed to meet these requirements. Necessary Skills The skills that a good project manager possesses are many and varied, covering the entire spectrum of the human personality. We can divide these skills into a number of specific categories, namely: 14 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 13_26_ch02. fm Page 15 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Personal Skills Project Managers must be able to motivate and sustain people. Project team members will look to the project manager to solve problems and help with removing obstacles.Project managers must be able to address and solve problems within the team, as well as those that occur outside the team. There are numerous ways, both subtle and direct, in which project managers can help team members. Some examples include the following: G G G G G G Manage by example (MBE). Team members will be closely watching all actions of the project manager. Therefore, project managers must be honest, direct, straightforward, and knowledgeable in all dealings with people and with the project. A good manager knows how to work hard and have fun, and this approach becomes contagious.A positive attitude. Project managers must always have a positive attitude, even when there are substantial difficulties, problems, or project obstacles. Negative attitudes erode confidence, and a downward spiral will follow. Define expectations. Managers who manage must clearly define what is expected of team members. It is i mportant to do this in writing—get agreement from the individual team members. This leaves no room for problems later, when someone states â€Å"It’s not my job. † Performance expectations must be defined at the start of the project.Be considerate. Project management is a demanding job with a need for multiple skills at many levels. Above all, be considerate and respectful, and give people and team members the time and consideration they deserve. Make people aware that their efforts are appreciated and the work that they do is important, because it is. A letter, personal word, or e-mail of appreciation goes a long way. Be direct. Project managers are respected if they are direct, open, and deal with all types of problems. Never conceal problems or avoid addressing them.If a problem is bigger than the project manager or the team can deal with, escalate it to senior management. Never make commitments that cannot be delivered. Finally, a favorite and personal rule of the author: â€Å"Underpromise, then over-deliver. † 15 Necessary Skills 13_26_ch02. fm Page 16 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Technical Skills There are two schools of thought about the level needed for technical skills. Some project managers prefer to have little technical knowledge about the projects they manage, preferring to leave the technical management to other junior managers, such as programming managers or network managers.Others have detailed technical skills of computer languages, software, and networks. There is no hard and fast rule. It really depends on the type and size of projects, their structure, resources available, and the project environment. Questions that project managers should ask include the following: 1. What types of technical problems require management? 2. Who will solve them? 3. Is it done with quality and satisfaction? 4. Who can I rely on in my project team? 5. What outside resources, if any, can I draw on for assistance?As with all em ployees, project managers should have the technical knowledge and skills needed to do their jobs. If managers lack these skills, training is one option; being mentored or coached by a more experienced individual is another. Senior management should ask the question, Do your project managers need more technical skills than they already possess? On larger complex projects, such as systems integration projects or multiple-year projects, there are frequently too many complex technologies for the project manager to master.Technical training that provides breadth may be useful. On smaller projects, the project manager may also be a key technical contributor. In this case, technical training may enhance the abilities of project managers to contribute technically, but it is unlikely to improve their management skills. One thing is abundantly clear—the project manager is ultimately responsible for the entire management of the project, technical or otherwise, and will require solutions to the technical issues that will occur. 16 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 3_26_ch02. fm Page 17 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Management Skills Project managers need other key skills besides those that are purely technical to lead and deliver on their projects successfully. A good project manager needs to understand many facets of the business aspect of running a project, so critical skills touch on expertise in the areas of organization, communication, finance, and human resources. The following are examples of the management topics used in training effective project managers: G G G G G G G G G G G G G G GProject planning, initiation, and organization Recruiting people and keeping them Effective project negotiation Software tools for project management Accurate estimating and cost control Project execution and control Developing powerful project presentations and reports Personal and project leadership Managing risk and making decisions Effective problem manage ment Performance management Managing the projects within the organization Project management professional (PMP) exam review Growing and sustaining a high-performance team Managing change within an organizationThis last skill cannot be over-emphasized. Although we worry about whether the technology selected is the correct one for the organization and will lead to success, projects do not generally fail because of lack of adequate technology. Statistically, most projects fail because the â€Å"soft science† portions of the project have not received enough attention—the human factor has not been adequately addressed. Change, whether for good or for bad, is stressful on an organization and its personnel. The ability to manage this change is one area in which any good project manager would do well to hone skills.Necessary Skills 17 13_26_ch02. fm Page 18 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Coping Skills A good project manager has to acquire a number of skills to cope with dif ferent situations, conflicts, uncertainty, and doubt. This means: G G G G G Being flexible Being persistent and firm when necessary Being creative, even when the project does not call for it Absorbing large volumes of data from multiple sources Being patient but able to differentiate between patience and action Being able to handle large amounts of continuous, often unrelenting stressG Additionally, good project managers have high tolerance for surprises, uncertainty, and ambiguity. Projects rarely progress the way that they are defined, and managers need to manage the uncertainty that comes with that. Manage One Project—or Many? There is no simple answer to this question: some managers are able to juggle multiple projects and disparate deadlines successfully, and others are not. In these days of multiple projects that have to be delivered quickly, it is very possible that management will require managing multiple projects.However, this brings a risk. Will project managers be stretched too thin? Again, there is no single, reliable answer. Project managers and senior management need to ask themselves some basic questions: G G How much support will be provided? How many people are on the project? Are they part-time or fulltime? What are the management challenges? An adequately budgeted project may require less effort to manage than one that is extremely thin. Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers G 18 13_26_ch02. fm Page 19 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM G G GAre all the projects in the same physical location or will the project manager spend a lot of time traveling? Do all the projects involve the same technology? The same business cultures? The same set of stakeholders? How many of the projects have important deadlines that are close together? The answers to these questions will aid in determining whether multiple projects can share a management resource. The more complex the projects from the standpoints of staffing, budgeting, and technolog y, the more likely it is that they will need a dedicated resource to manage them adequately.Project Management Skills Development One of the surest ways to align strategies and work force competencies with enterprise vision is to create a road map from vision to execution. A skills management process starts in the future and works its way back to the present. An IT skills management process, for example, links the enterprise vision to a technology forecast. The technology forecasts to required skills, the required skills to the IT skills inventory, the skills inventory to the IT staff’s competence levels, and the competence levels to gaps and to the time frame during which those gaps need to be filled.Leadership, team building, marketing, business savvy, project management, manufacturing know-how, functional expertise, and institutional knowledge all are part of the skills picture. Skills management serves as an order for managing the work force (see Figure 2–1). It la ys out a road map for skills development, work role definition, career tracks, resource management, staffing allocation, workload balancing, and learning. With a road map, all members of the work force can fit their strengths, weaknesses, and alternatives into the enterprise’s plans.Skills management is becoming a lifeline in a turbulent IT labor market. Midsize and large enterprises, businesses in the private and public sectors, aggressive and conservative companies—all are looking at skills management with renewed interest. Many enterprises now recognize that the combined lack of enterprise planning, imagination, and Project Management Skills Development 19 13_26_ch02. fm Page 20 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Enterprise Objective Forecast Where does the enterprise want to be in 36 months? What information, technologies and skills will it need to get there?What skills are in-house (e. g. , technical, business, leadership and project management)? What skills will i t need in 12 months? 24 months? 36 months? How valuable will today’s skills be in 12 months? 24 months? 36 months? How proficient are the IS staff members in the established and the needed skills? What education and training will the enterprise offer, to whom and how will it provide this? What sources of IT skills — internal and external — can we use to fill the gaps? Skill Inventory Skill Definition Strategic Skill Valuation Proficiency LevelsLearning Portfolio Sourcing Figure 2–1 Skills Management—A Road Map for the Work Force (Source: Gartner Group, Inc. ). foresight are as much to blame for today’s labor crunch as is the shortage of relevant IT skills. In that climate, skills management can be a powerful tool for bringing discipline, rationale, and cross-pollination to an underused process. Even more enticing, many IT professionals, under the mantle of career â€Å"entrepreneurism,† will throw in their lot with enterprises that ha ve clearly committed to and funded skills management programs.Having a road map with which to guide career development is more meaningful than wandering until serendipity strikes. Three years ago, when large organizations first began covering the area of skills management, it was a process reserved for the most progressive enterprises. By methodically and meticulously forecasting, classifying, analyzing, and taking inventory of skills, progressive enterprises could identify the urgency and volume of skills gaps, create focused training programs, and add some rational thinking to their sourcing strategies.Skills management continues to satisfy those needs, even fos20 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 13_26_ch02. fm Page 21 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM tering a niche market of consultants and software developers that are eager to bring order to IT Human Resource management. Before moving on, it is beneficial to make sure that everybody is speaking the same language. I n the Gartner Group’s definition of perspective, skills management is a robust and systematic approach to forecasting, identifying, cataloguing, evaluating, and analyzing the work force skills, competencies and gaps that enterprises face.Although many programs and initiatives adopt the label skills management, most of them focus on skills inventory and fall short in analysis and forecasting. A well-designed skills management process injects a stronger dose of discipline, coordination, and planning into work force planning, strategic planning, professional training and development programs, resource allocation maneuvering, and risk analysis and assessment. Enterprises can reap several lessons from skills management. Skills management works if it: G G G G GG Defines skills for roles Forces forward thinking Forces some documentation of what makes an IT professional especially proficient Strengthens the organization Leads to focused training, risk assessment, sourcing strategy, a nd resource allocation via gap identification Attracts high-level endorsement Does not define work roles Lacks plans or incentive for refreshment Communicates its purpose poorly Provides differing language and terminology Force-fits skills and work roles to policies, rather than driving new frameworksSkills management does not work if it: G G G G G Project Management Skills Development 21 13_26_ch02. fm Page 22 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Skills Management Case Study A North American manufacturing company set a goal to boost revenue by $300 million within three years. Key to the growth was a new way of dealing with information and IT. First, hoarding of information by divisions had to give way to enterprise ownership of information.Second, ubiquitous access to information required a managed and enterprise-wide migration to standards, interoperability, common platforms, and client/server technology. Finally, the vision of ubiquitous access depended on substantially upgrading th e IT organization’s skill base, supplementing and supplanting mainframe skills with skills associated with distributed processing and client/server application development.The company embarked on an ambitious initiative designed to cultivate the technical skills and business understanding of the IT professionals. The initiative—notably, company-wide skill identification and continuous training—will help the company to raise its skills level and will give IT employees control of their professional development. Elements of the IT professional development initiative included: GIdentifying eight areas of IT professional skills, technical skills being only one area (a detailed discussion on the eight areas identified follows this list) Assigning company values to skills for the near term, short term, and long term Evaluating employee competence levels within the eight areas of IT professional skills Providing continuous training in critical skills, both technical and non-technical Establishing an IT mentor program Supervisors providing performance planning and coaching Establishing team and peer feedback Flattening the IT organization from 18 to 5 titles Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project ManagersG G G G G G G 22 13_26_ch02. fm Page 23 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM G Mapping skills and performance values to â€Å"salary zones† within the flatter organization With the help of outside experts, IT executives identified more than 125 skills in eight areas of IT professional development. The eight areas of focus for IT professional development and a sampling of associated skills include: GCustomer focus—employee possesses knowledge of customers’ business needs and expectations; delivers constructive qualitative feedback to customers, meets deadlines, and works with customers to set requirements and schedules Technical skills—employee possesses skills related to programming, computer-aided software engineering, deskt op client services, enterprise infrastructure applications, technical software, and hardware support Product or technology evaluation and expertise—employee analyzes and compares products, makes sound recommendations within the company architecture, understands and recognizes limitations of technologies, can communicate the fundamentals of technology to others, and uses technical team resources to resolve or avoid technology-based problems Business and application expertise—employee possesses knowledge of business-specific applications, knows company’s business and local operations, knows the broad application environments (e. g. order entry and accounting), and understands general concepts of business management Project management—employee handles projects of certain size and complexity, estimates project costs and schedules with a degree of accuracy, executes project to plan, manages multiple projects at once, builds teams and organizes team resources, and knows project management tools Interpersonal skills—employee performs as team member or team leader, contributes knowledge to the team and to the organization, and communicates effectively Administrative skills —employee has understanding of budgeting, interviewing, economics of the business, and salary and review process 23 G G G G G G Project Management Skills Development 13_26_ch02. fm Page 24 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM G Soft skills—employee displays leadership, forward thinking, initiative, drive for education, and commitment to organizational structure and development.Each skill receives a weighting factor based on its strategic significance to the company during the next 12 months, the next 12 to 24 months, and the next 24 to 60 months. A skill considered critical to the company earns a weight of 6; a skill with no value to the company earns a weight of 0. After the company skills are identified and their weights assigned, employee skills are c rosschecked against the company skills and assigned a score based on the employee’s competence level. Employee competence levels range from 6 to 1, that is, from mastery to basic understanding. (A competence score of zero is reserved for skills that are either not applicable or not possessed by the employee. Employees then compare their competence scores with those they receive from their peers, team leaders, and supervisors. To see the scoring mechanism in action, assume that the company assigns COBOL programming skills a weight of 4 for the next 12 months and a weight of 3 for the following 12 to 24 months. At the same time, an IT employee earns a score of 3 for average skills in COBOL programming. Given the framework, the value of those skills to the employee will be 12 during the next 12 months, but the value will decline to 9 during the next 12 to 24 months. Continuous training is considered essential to the program’s success. Here, the IT executives are seeking t o develop an implicit promise between the company and the employees.The company promises to provide the resources and opportunities for training—time, funding, and identification and valuation of strategic skills— if the employees promise to use the training to bridge gaps in the company skills base and in their own skill levels. Armed with the company skills inventory and personal competence scores, employees who take the appropriate training will see their value to the company rise. Employees who choose to forgo appropriate training will see their value diminish. On the plus side, the skills and training program has forced the company to view the IT organization in terms of skills and long-term corporate objectives, not simply in terms of head count.Moreover, employees have responded positively to a program that puts professional development in their hands. On the negative side, skills identification and buy-in from IT managers take so long that the initiative risks losing momentum. 24 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 13_26_ch02. fm Page 25 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Keys to a Successful Skills Management Endeavor Three areas must be worked out for a skills management initiative to be successful: 1. Employees have to adopt the program as their own, rather than as a management dictate, including the employees assuming control of their own professional development 2. Supervisors have to surrender some control over employee development 3.Executives must ensure that employees use metrics as a tool for professional development, not as a weapon in cutthroat competition As enterprises turn to technology to reach the next level of corporate performance, IT organizations should identify the skills they need to meet the corporate objectives. Through a program of skills identification, IT organizations can see the holes in their coverage, set priorities for projects, define which training is required, and determine which skills may nee d third-party coverage. A commitment to funding for training is essential. Conclusions Rarely has a professional field evolved as rapidly as project management. It is totally different from what it was even 10 years ago.The struggle to stay abreast of new and rapidly evolving technologies, to deal with accumulated development and maintenance backlogs, and to cope with people issues has become a treadmill race as software groups work hard just to stay in place. A key goal of disciplined project managers is to avoid the surprises that can occur when these surprises almost always lead to bad news: canceled projects, late delivery, cost overruns, dissatisfied customers, outsourcing, termination, and unemployment. Indeed, we need to develop management by surprise (MBS) as a project management technique! Keys to a Successful Skills Management Endeavor 25 13_26_ch02. fm Page 26 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM As we have discussed in this chapter, project managers are a special breed of p eople.The skills that they develop are a cross between a diplomat, ballet dancer, and a Marine Corps drill sergeant—all while having the patience of Job. These skills will serve them well for future higher-level positions as Vice Presidents, Chief Information Officers (CIOs), and Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) of the corporations for which they work. The culture of an organization is a critical success factor in its efforts to survive, improve, and flourish. A culture based on a commitment to project management and delivering quality projects and effective management differentiates a team that practices excellent project management from a flock of individual programmers doing their best to ship code. Projects rarely fail—but people do. 26 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers Skills of a Project Manager 13_26_ch02. fm Page 13 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Chapter 2 Basic Skills for Project Managers Be not afraid of greatness; some are born great; some achieve greatness—others have greatness thrust upon them. William Shakespeare Twelfth Night Introduction Before now, we had discussed project management in the broad sense, that is, from the perspective that any type of project—industrial assembly line, new construction, or technology implementation— operated by the same sets of rules and processes. For the remainder of this book, we focus on the last type of project and its leader—the IT project manager.Project managers are a very special breed of people. They are in much demand and will be increasingly so as the need for effective technologists continues to soar. Good technology project managers are trained, not born. They develop skills through experience and education. They become better project managers each time they successfully deliver a project. They learn new techniques and apply them on their projects. They learn lessons—sometimes the hard way—to be better managers in the future. 13 13_26_ch02. fm Page 14 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM What Does a Project Manager Do?Briefly, technology project managers fulfill the following broad requirements: G G G G G G G G Define and review the business case and requirements by regular reviews and controls to ensure that the client receives the system that he or she wants and needs. Initiate and plan the project by establishing its format, direction, and base lines that allow for any variance measurements and change control. Partner with the end users, work with project sponsors and other management to establish progress and direction of the project by achieving goals, reaching targets, solving problems, mitigating risks.Manage the technology, people, and change in order to achieve goals, reach targets, and deliver the project on time and within budget. Manage the pro ject staff by creating an environment conducive to the delivery of the new application in the most cost-effective manner. Be able to manage uncertainty, rapid change, ambiguity, surprises, and a less defined environment. Manage the client relationship by using an adequate direct yet complete and formal reporting format that compliments a respected and productive relationship. Drive the project by leading by example, and motivating allconcerned until the project accomplishes its goal.Now let us examine the skills and qualities needed to meet these requirements. Necessary Skills The skills that a good project manager possesses are many and varied, covering the entire spectrum of the human personality. We can divide these skills into a number of specific categories, namely: 14 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 13_26_ch02. fm Page 15 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Personal Skills Project Managers must be able to motivate and sustain people. Project team members will look to the project manager to solve problems and help with removing obstacles.Project managers must be able to address and solve problems within the team, as well as those that occur outside the team. There are numerous ways, both subtle and direct, in which project managers can help team members. Some examples include the following: G G G G G G Manage by example (MBE). Team members will be closely watching all actions of the project manager. Therefore, project managers must be honest, direct, straightforward, and knowledgeable in all dealings with people and with the project. A good manager knows how to work hard and have fun, and this approach becomes contagious.A positive attitude. Project managers must always have a positive attitude, even when there are substantial difficulties, problems, or project obstacles. Negative attitudes erode confidence, and a downward spiral will follow. Define expectations. Managers who manage must clearly define what is expected of team members. It is i mportant to do this in writing—get agreement from the individual team members. This leaves no room for problems later, when someone states â€Å"It’s not my job. † Performance expectations must be defined at the start of the project.Be considerate. Project management is a demanding job with a need for multiple skills at many levels. Above all, be considerate and respectful, and give people and team members the time and consideration they deserve. Make people aware that their efforts are appreciated and the work that they do is important, because it is. A letter, personal word, or e-mail of appreciation goes a long way. Be direct. Project managers are respected if they are direct, open, and deal with all types of problems. Never conceal problems or avoid addressing them.If a problem is bigger than the project manager or the team can deal with, escalate it to senior management. Never make commitments that cannot be delivered. Finally, a favorite and personal rule of the author: â€Å"Underpromise, then over-deliver. † 15 Necessary Skills 13_26_ch02. fm Page 16 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Technical Skills There are two schools of thought about the level needed for technical skills. Some project managers prefer to have little technical knowledge about the projects they manage, preferring to leave the technical management to other junior managers, such as programming managers or network managers.Others have detailed technical skills of computer languages, software, and networks. There is no hard and fast rule. It really depends on the type and size of projects, their structure, resources available, and the project environment. Questions that project managers should ask include the following: 1. What types of technical problems require management? 2. Who will solve them? 3. Is it done with quality and satisfaction? 4. Who can I rely on in my project team? 5. What outside resources, if any, can I draw on for assistance?As with all em ployees, project managers should have the technical knowledge and skills needed to do their jobs. If managers lack these skills, training is one option; being mentored or coached by a more experienced individual is another. Senior management should ask the question, Do your project managers need more technical skills than they already possess? On larger complex projects, such as systems integration projects or multiple-year projects, there are frequently too many complex technologies for the project manager to master.Technical training that provides breadth may be useful. On smaller projects, the project manager may also be a key technical contributor. In this case, technical training may enhance the abilities of project managers to contribute technically, but it is unlikely to improve their management skills. One thing is abundantly clear—the project manager is ultimately responsible for the entire management of the project, technical or otherwise, and will require solutions to the technical issues that will occur. 16 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 3_26_ch02. fm Page 17 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Management Skills Project managers need other key skills besides those that are purely technical to lead and deliver on their projects successfully. A good project manager needs to understand many facets of the business aspect of running a project, so critical skills touch on expertise in the areas of organization, communication, finance, and human resources. The following are examples of the management topics used in training effective project managers: G G G G G G G G G G G G G G GProject planning, initiation, and organization Recruiting people and keeping them Effective project negotiation Software tools for project management Accurate estimating and cost control Project execution and control Developing powerful project presentations and reports Personal and project leadership Managing risk and making decisions Effective problem manage ment Performance management Managing the projects within the organization Project management professional (PMP) exam review Growing and sustaining a high-performance team Managing change within an organizationThis last skill cannot be over-emphasized. Although we worry about whether the technology selected is the correct one for the organization and will lead to success, projects do not generally fail because of lack of adequate technology. Statistically, most projects fail because the â€Å"soft science† portions of the project have not received enough attention—the human factor has not been adequately addressed. Change, whether for good or for bad, is stressful on an organization and its personnel. The ability to manage this change is one area in which any good project manager would do well to hone skills.Necessary Skills 17 13_26_ch02. fm Page 18 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Coping Skills A good project manager has to acquire a number of skills to cope with dif ferent situations, conflicts, uncertainty, and doubt. This means: G G G G G Being flexible Being persistent and firm when necessary Being creative, even when the project does not call for it Absorbing large volumes of data from multiple sources Being patient but able to differentiate between patience and action Being able to handle large amounts of continuous, often unrelenting stressG Additionally, good project managers have high tolerance for surprises, uncertainty, and ambiguity. Projects rarely progress the way that they are defined, and managers need to manage the uncertainty that comes with that. Manage One Project—or Many? There is no simple answer to this question: some managers are able to juggle multiple projects and disparate deadlines successfully, and others are not. In these days of multiple projects that have to be delivered quickly, it is very possible that management will require managing multiple projects.However, this brings a risk. Will project managers be stretched too thin? Again, there is no single, reliable answer. Project managers and senior management need to ask themselves some basic questions: G G How much support will be provided? How many people are on the project? Are they part-time or fulltime? What are the management challenges? An adequately budgeted project may require less effort to manage than one that is extremely thin. Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers G 18 13_26_ch02. fm Page 19 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM G G GAre all the projects in the same physical location or will the project manager spend a lot of time traveling? Do all the projects involve the same technology? The same business cultures? The same set of stakeholders? How many of the projects have important deadlines that are close together? The answers to these questions will aid in determining whether multiple projects can share a management resource. The more complex the projects from the standpoints of staffing, budgeting, and technolog y, the more likely it is that they will need a dedicated resource to manage them adequately.Project Management Skills Development One of the surest ways to align strategies and work force competencies with enterprise vision is to create a road map from vision to execution. A skills management process starts in the future and works its way back to the present. An IT skills management process, for example, links the enterprise vision to a technology forecast. The technology forecasts to required skills, the required skills to the IT skills inventory, the skills inventory to the IT staff’s competence levels, and the competence levels to gaps and to the time frame during which those gaps need to be filled.Leadership, team building, marketing, business savvy, project management, manufacturing know-how, functional expertise, and institutional knowledge all are part of the skills picture. Skills management serves as an order for managing the work force (see Figure 2–1). It la ys out a road map for skills development, work role definition, career tracks, resource management, staffing allocation, workload balancing, and learning. With a road map, all members of the work force can fit their strengths, weaknesses, and alternatives into the enterprise’s plans.Skills management is becoming a lifeline in a turbulent IT labor market. Midsize and large enterprises, businesses in the private and public sectors, aggressive and conservative companies—all are looking at skills management with renewed interest. Many enterprises now recognize that the combined lack of enterprise planning, imagination, and Project Management Skills Development 19 13_26_ch02. fm Page 20 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Enterprise Objective Forecast Where does the enterprise want to be in 36 months? What information, technologies and skills will it need to get there?What skills are in-house (e. g. , technical, business, leadership and project management)? What skills will i t need in 12 months? 24 months? 36 months? How valuable will today’s skills be in 12 months? 24 months? 36 months? How proficient are the IS staff members in the established and the needed skills? What education and training will the enterprise offer, to whom and how will it provide this? What sources of IT skills — internal and external — can we use to fill the gaps? Skill Inventory Skill Definition Strategic Skill Valuation Proficiency LevelsLearning Portfolio Sourcing Figure 2–1 Skills Management—A Road Map for the Work Force (Source: Gartner Group, Inc. ). foresight are as much to blame for today’s labor crunch as is the shortage of relevant IT skills. In that climate, skills management can be a powerful tool for bringing discipline, rationale, and cross-pollination to an underused process. Even more enticing, many IT professionals, under the mantle of career â€Å"entrepreneurism,† will throw in their lot with enterprises that ha ve clearly committed to and funded skills management programs.Having a road map with which to guide career development is more meaningful than wandering until serendipity strikes. Three years ago, when large organizations first began covering the area of skills management, it was a process reserved for the most progressive enterprises. By methodically and meticulously forecasting, classifying, analyzing, and taking inventory of skills, progressive enterprises could identify the urgency and volume of skills gaps, create focused training programs, and add some rational thinking to their sourcing strategies.Skills management continues to satisfy those needs, even fos20 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 13_26_ch02. fm Page 21 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM tering a niche market of consultants and software developers that are eager to bring order to IT Human Resource management. Before moving on, it is beneficial to make sure that everybody is speaking the same language. I n the Gartner Group’s definition of perspective, skills management is a robust and systematic approach to forecasting, identifying, cataloguing, evaluating, and analyzing the work force skills, competencies and gaps that enterprises face.Although many programs and initiatives adopt the label skills management, most of them focus on skills inventory and fall short in analysis and forecasting. A well-designed skills management process injects a stronger dose of discipline, coordination, and planning into work force planning, strategic planning, professional training and development programs, resource allocation maneuvering, and risk analysis and assessment. Enterprises can reap several lessons from skills management. Skills management works if it: G G G G GG Defines skills for roles Forces forward thinking Forces some documentation of what makes an IT professional especially proficient Strengthens the organization Leads to focused training, risk assessment, sourcing strategy, a nd resource allocation via gap identification Attracts high-level endorsement Does not define work roles Lacks plans or incentive for refreshment Communicates its purpose poorly Provides differing language and terminology Force-fits skills and work roles to policies, rather than driving new frameworksSkills management does not work if it: G G G G G Project Management Skills Development 21 13_26_ch02. fm Page 22 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Skills Management Case Study A North American manufacturing company set a goal to boost revenue by $300 million within three years. Key to the growth was a new way of dealing with information and IT. First, hoarding of information by divisions had to give way to enterprise ownership of information.Second, ubiquitous access to information required a managed and enterprise-wide migration to standards, interoperability, common platforms, and client/server technology. Finally, the vision of ubiquitous access depended on substantially upgrading th e IT organization’s skill base, supplementing and supplanting mainframe skills with skills associated with distributed processing and client/server application development.The company embarked on an ambitious initiative designed to cultivate the technical skills and business understanding of the IT professionals. The initiative—notably, company-wide skill identification and continuous training—will help the company to raise its skills level and will give IT employees control of their professional development. Elements of the IT professional development initiative included: GIdentifying eight areas of IT professional skills, technical skills being only one area (a detailed discussion on the eight areas identified follows this list) Assigning company values to skills for the near term, short term, and long term Evaluating employee competence levels within the eight areas of IT professional skills Providing continuous training in critical skills, both technical and non-technical Establishing an IT mentor program Supervisors providing performance planning and coaching Establishing team and peer feedback Flattening the IT organization from 18 to 5 titles Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project ManagersG G G G G G G 22 13_26_ch02. fm Page 23 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM G Mapping skills and performance values to â€Å"salary zones† within the flatter organization With the help of outside experts, IT executives identified more than 125 skills in eight areas of IT professional development. The eight areas of focus for IT professional development and a sampling of associated skills include: GCustomer focus—employee possesses knowledge of customers’ business needs and expectations; delivers constructive qualitative feedback to customers, meets deadlines, and works with customers to set requirements and schedules Technical skills—employee possesses skills related to programming, computer-aided software engineering, deskt op client services, enterprise infrastructure applications, technical software, and hardware support Product or technology evaluation and expertise—employee analyzes and compares products, makes sound recommendations within the company architecture, understands and recognizes limitations of technologies, can communicate the fundamentals of technology to others, and uses technical team resources to resolve or avoid technology-based problems Business and application expertise—employee possesses knowledge of business-specific applications, knows company’s business and local operations, knows the broad application environments (e. g. order entry and accounting), and understands general concepts of business management Project management—employee handles projects of certain size and complexity, estimates project costs and schedules with a degree of accuracy, executes project to plan, manages multiple projects at once, builds teams and organizes team resources, and knows project management tools Interpersonal skills—employee performs as team member or team leader, contributes knowledge to the team and to the organization, and communicates effectively Administrative skills —employee has understanding of budgeting, interviewing, economics of the business, and salary and review process 23 G G G G G G Project Management Skills Development 13_26_ch02. fm Page 24 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM G Soft skills—employee displays leadership, forward thinking, initiative, drive for education, and commitment to organizational structure and development.Each skill receives a weighting factor based on its strategic significance to the company during the next 12 months, the next 12 to 24 months, and the next 24 to 60 months. A skill considered critical to the company earns a weight of 6; a skill with no value to the company earns a weight of 0. After the company skills are identified and their weights assigned, employee skills are c rosschecked against the company skills and assigned a score based on the employee’s competence level. Employee competence levels range from 6 to 1, that is, from mastery to basic understanding. (A competence score of zero is reserved for skills that are either not applicable or not possessed by the employee. Employees then compare their competence scores with those they receive from their peers, team leaders, and supervisors. To see the scoring mechanism in action, assume that the company assigns COBOL programming skills a weight of 4 for the next 12 months and a weight of 3 for the following 12 to 24 months. At the same time, an IT employee earns a score of 3 for average skills in COBOL programming. Given the framework, the value of those skills to the employee will be 12 during the next 12 months, but the value will decline to 9 during the next 12 to 24 months. Continuous training is considered essential to the program’s success. Here, the IT executives are seeking t o develop an implicit promise between the company and the employees.The company promises to provide the resources and opportunities for training—time, funding, and identification and valuation of strategic skills— if the employees promise to use the training to bridge gaps in the company skills base and in their own skill levels. Armed with the company skills inventory and personal competence scores, employees who take the appropriate training will see their value to the company rise. Employees who choose to forgo appropriate training will see their value diminish. On the plus side, the skills and training program has forced the company to view the IT organization in terms of skills and long-term corporate objectives, not simply in terms of head count.Moreover, employees have responded positively to a program that puts professional development in their hands. On the negative side, skills identification and buy-in from IT managers take so long that the initiative risks losing momentum. 24 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers 13_26_ch02. fm Page 25 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM Keys to a Successful Skills Management Endeavor Three areas must be worked out for a skills management initiative to be successful: 1. Employees have to adopt the program as their own, rather than as a management dictate, including the employees assuming control of their own professional development 2. Supervisors have to surrender some control over employee development 3.Executives must ensure that employees use metrics as a tool for professional development, not as a weapon in cutthroat competition As enterprises turn to technology to reach the next level of corporate performance, IT organizations should identify the skills they need to meet the corporate objectives. Through a program of skills identification, IT organizations can see the holes in their coverage, set priorities for projects, define which training is required, and determine which skills may nee d third-party coverage. A commitment to funding for training is essential. Conclusions Rarely has a professional field evolved as rapidly as project management. It is totally different from what it was even 10 years ago.The struggle to stay abreast of new and rapidly evolving technologies, to deal with accumulated development and maintenance backlogs, and to cope with people issues has become a treadmill race as software groups work hard just to stay in place. A key goal of disciplined project managers is to avoid the surprises that can occur when these surprises almost always lead to bad news: canceled projects, late delivery, cost overruns, dissatisfied customers, outsourcing, termination, and unemployment. Indeed, we need to develop management by surprise (MBS) as a project management technique! Keys to a Successful Skills Management Endeavor 25 13_26_ch02. fm Page 26 Friday, September 8, 2000 2:43 PM As we have discussed in this chapter, project managers are a special breed of p eople.The skills that they develop are a cross between a diplomat, ballet dancer, and a Marine Corps drill sergeant—all while having the patience of Job. These skills will serve them well for future higher-level positions as Vice Presidents, Chief Information Officers (CIOs), and Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) of the corporations for which they work. The culture of an organization is a critical success factor in its efforts to survive, improve, and flourish. A culture based on a commitment to project management and delivering quality projects and effective management differentiates a team that practices excellent project management from a flock of individual programmers doing their best to ship code. Projects rarely fail—but people do. 26 Chapter 2 | Basic Skills for Project Managers